While bottled water marketing conveys images of purity, inadequate regulations offer no assurance. The National Resources Defense Council, a well-organized environmental interests group, funded a study to compare bottled drinking water against ordinary tap water. Unless you remember the problems that Perrier had over 10 years ago with contamination in their water, the results may surprise you. Those of us who work in environmental sciences and engineering usually drink tap water, if that tells you anything! EHSO is studying the NRDC report, and we will shortly provide our summary and opinion. In the meantime, these pages link to the report so you can read it, too.
Under the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) labeling rules,
bottled water includes products labeled:
Waters with added carbonation, soda water (or club soda), tonic water
and seltzer historically are regulated by FDA as soft drinks.
From the NRDC:
Sales of bottled water in this country have exploded in recent years, largely as a result of a public perception of purity driven by advertisements and packaging labels featuring pristine glaciers and crystal-clear mountain springs. But bottled water sold in the United States is not necessarily cleaner or safer than most tap water, according to a four-year scientific study recently made public by NRDC.
NRDC's study included testing of more than 1,000 bottles of 103 brands of bottled water. While most of the tested waters were found to be of high quality, some brands were contaminated: about one-third of the waters tested contained levels of contamination -- including synthetic organic chemicals, bacteria, and arsenic -- in at least one sample that exceeded allowable limits under either state or bottled water industry standards or guidelines.
A key NRDC finding is that bottled water regulations are inadequate to assure consumers of either purity or safety, although both the federal government and the states have bottled water safety programs. At the national level, the Food and Drug Administration is responsible for bottled water safety, but the FDA's rules completely exempt waters that are packaged and sold within the same state, which account for between 60 and 70 percent of all bottled water sold in the United States (roughly one out of five states don't regulate these waters either). The FDA also exempts carbonated water and seltzer, and fewer than half of the states require carbonated waters to meet their own bottled water standards.
Even when bottled waters are covered by the FDA's rules, they are subject to less rigorous testing and purity standards than those which apply to city tap water (see chart below). For example, bottled water is required to be tested less frequently than city tap water for bacteria and chemical contaminants. In addition, bottled water rules allow for some contamination by E. coli or fecal coliform (which indicate possible contamination with fecal matter), contrary to tap water rules, which prohibit any confirmed contamination with these bacteria. Similarly, there are no requirements for bottled water to be disinfected or tested for parasites such as cryptosporidium or giardia, unlike the rules for big city tap water systems that use surface water sources. This leaves open the possibility that some bottled water may present a health threat to people with weakened immune systems, such as the frail elderly, some infants, transplant or cancer patients, or people with HIV/AIDS.
| Some Key Differences Between EPA Tap Water and FDA Bottled Water Rules |
| Water Type | Disinfection Required? | Confirmed E. Coli & Fecal Coliform Banned? | Testing Frequency for Bacteria | Must Filter to Remove Pathogens, or Have Strictly Protected Source? | Must Test for Cryptosporidium, Giardia, Viruses? | Testing Frequency for Most Synthetic Organic Chemicals |
| Bottled Water | No | No | 1/week | No | No | 1/year |
| Carbonated or Seltzer Water | No | No | None | No | No | None |
| Big City Tap Water (using surface water) | Yes | Yes | Hundreds/ month | Yes | Yes | 1/quarter
(limited waivers available if clean source) |
| See Table 1 of NRDC's bottled water report for further comparisons and explanations. |
What are Americans drinking?
Ironically, public concern about tap water quality is at least partly responsible for the growth in bottled water sales, which have tripled in the past 10 years. This bonanza is also fueled by marketing designed to convince the public of bottled water's purity and safety, marketing so successful that people spend from 240 to over 10,000 times more per gallon for bottled water than they typically do for tap water.
One of the most recent studies was conducted in 2002 by the FDA. It showed that Americans preferred filtered tap water by a huge margin (see the table at left) over all other beverages, including coffee, soft drinks and bottled waters.
By 2006, the gap narrowed, as it has become trendy to drink bottled waters and flavored waters.
But, in fact, about one-fourth of bottled water is actually bottled tap water, according to government and industry estimates (some estimates go as high as 40 percent). And FDA rules allow bottlers to call their product "spring water" even though it may be brought to the surface using a pumped well, and it may be treated with chemicals. But the actual source of water is not always made clear -- some bottled water marketing is misleading, implying the water comes from pristine sources when it does not. In 1995, the FDA issued labeling rules to prevent misleading claims, but while the rules do prohibit some of the most deceptive labeling practices, they have not eliminated the problem.
Some examples of interesting labels NRDC observed include:
"Spring Water" (with a picture of a lake surrounded by mountains on the label) -- Was actually from an industrial parking lot next to a hazardous waste site.
Alaska™ -- "Alaska Premium Glacier Drinking Water: Pure Glacier Water From the Last Unpolluted Frontier, Bacteria Free" -- Apparently came from a public water supply. This label has since been changed after FDA intervention.
Vals Water -- "Known to Generations in France for its Purity and Agreeable Contribution to Health . . . Reputed to Help Restore Energy, Vitality, and Combat Fatigue" -- The International Bottled Water Association voluntary code prohibits health claims, but some bottlers still make such claims.
(What are the different types of bottled water? Click here)
NRDC makes the following recommendations for improving bottled water safety precautions:
- The FDA should set strict limits for contaminants of concern in bottled water.
- The FDA's rules should apply to all bottled water distributed nationally or within a state, carbonated or not, and bottled water standards must be made at least as strict as those applicable to city tap water supplies.
- Water bottlers should be required to disclose water source, treatments and other key information as is now required of tap water systems.
- A penny-per-bottle fee should be initiated on bottled water to fund testing, regulatory programs, and enforcement at both state and national levels.
- State bottled water programs should be subject to federal review.
Ultimately, however, while Americans who choose to buy bottled water deserve the assurance that it is safe, the long-term solution to our drinking water problems is to ensure that safe, clean, good-tasting drinking water comes from our taps. Those who are particularly concerned about the quality of their tap water can take action by 1) calling their state drinking water program or the EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline (800 426-4791) for a list of state certified labs; and 2) purchasing filters certified by NSF International (800 NSF-MARK) to remove the contaminants of special concern to the consumer (NSF certification is not, however, a complete guarantee of safety).
Click here for the complete listing and SUMMARY OF NRDC'S TEST RESULTS - Bottled Water Contaminants Found
TABLE 1
Key Differences Between EPA Tap Water and FDA Bottled Water Rules
|
| Note: To print this chart, in the Print dialogue box choose Properties and Paper and set to Legal and Landscape and click OK; under Print Range choose "from 1 to 1" and click OK (this will print one page and lock in settings); then use Print Preview to determine which page(s) to print. |
| Water Type | Disinfection Required? |
Confirmed E. Coli & Fecal Coliform Banned? | Testing Frequency for Bacteria? |
Must Filter to Remove Pathogens, or Have Strictly Protected Source? | Must Test for Crypto-sporidium, Giardia, Viruses? |
Testing Frequency for Most Synthetic Organic Chemicals? | Operator Must be Trained & Certified? |
Must Test for and Meet Standards for Asbestos & Phthalate? | Must Use Certified Labs to Do Testing? |
Must Report Violations to State, Feds? | Regulated allowable levels of heavy metalse |
Consumer
Right to
Know About Contam-ination? |
| Bottled Water | No | No |
1/week | Noa |
No | 1/year | No |
No | No | No |
5ppm
lead | No |
| Carbonated or Seltzer Water | No |
No | None | No |
No | None | No |
No | No | No |
N/A | No |
| Big Cityb Tap Water (using surface water) |
Yes | Yes | Hundreds/ month |
Yes | Yes | 1/quarter
(limited waivers available if clean source) |
Yesc | Yes (though limited waivers available if clean source) |
Yes | Yes | 15ppm lead |
Yes |
| Small Townd Tap Water (using a well) |
No
(though new rule in 2002 will require if needed) | Yes |
20/month | No
(unless subject to surface contamination) |
No | 1/quarter (waivers available if clean source) |
Yesc | Yes (though waivers available if clean source) |
Yes | Yes | 15ppm lead |
Yes |
a. FDA requires state or local approval of bottled water sources, but there is no federal definition or control of what may be a bottled water source; the FDA "approved source" requirement thus has been called a "regulatory mirage." b. Big city refers to city system serving 100,000 people or more. A big city using only wells would have to comply with all requirements noted for a surface water-supplied city, except that if its wells were not under the influence of surface water, it currently would not have to disinfect, filter, or test for Cryptosporidium, Giardia, or viruses. A new rule for such groundwater-supplied systems must be issued in 2002, which may require some cities using wells to disinfect or filter and do additional microbial monitoring. c. The Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996 require states, subject to EPA guidelines, to train and certify operators of all public water systems. EPA's rules to implement this provision are required to be issued by February 1999. d. Small town refers to a town of 20,000 people. Such a small town using surface water would have to comply with all the same requirements noted for a large city using surface water, except the monitoring frequency for coliform would be 20/month, and there currently are no Cryptosporidium, Giardia, or virus monitoring requirements for small towns. e. In metal concentrations, standards for bottled water are different than for tap water. Because lead can leach from pipes as water travels from water utilities to home faucets, the EPA set an action level of 15 parts per billion (ppb) in tap water. This means that when lead levels are above 15 ppb in tap water that reaches home faucets, water utilities must treat the water to reduce the lead levels to below 15 ppb. In bottled water, where lead pipes are not used, the lead limit is set at 5 ppb. Based on FDA survey information, bottlers can readily produce bottled water products with lead levels below 5 ppb. This action was consistent with the FDA's goal of reducing consumers' exposure to lead in drinking water to the extent practicable. Howver, just because a standard is set, does not mean that all bottled waters comply! Source: NRDC |
Who regulates bottled water?
As with many other products, multiple agencies have regulatory
authority over bottled water. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and
the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) are both responsible for the
safety of drinking water. EPA regulates public drinking water (tap
water), while FDA regulates bottled drinking water.
FDA
has set Current Good Manufacturing Practices (CGMPs)
specifically for bottled water. They require bottled water
producers to:
- Process, bottle, hold and transport bottled water under
sanitary conditions;
- Protect water sources from bacteria,
chemicals and other contaminants;
- Use quality control processes to ensure
the bacteriological and chemical safety of the water;
- Sample and test both source water and
the final product for contaminants.
FDA
monitors and inspects bottled water products and processing
plants under its food safety program. When FDA inspects plants,
the Agency verifies that the plant's product water and
operational water supply are obtained from an approved source;
inspects washing and sanitizing procedures; inspects bottling
operations; and determines whether the companies analyze their
source water and product water for contaminants.
What are the different types of bottled water?
There are several different varieties of bottled water. The product may be labeled as bottled water, drinking water or any of the following terms. The Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) product definitions for bottled water are:
Artesian Water / Artesian Well Water: Bottled water from a well that taps a confined aquifer (a water-bearing underground layer of rock or sand) in which the water level stands at some height above the top of the aquifer.
Drinking Water: Drinking water is another name for bottled water. Accordingly, drinking water is water that is sold for human consumption in sanitary containers and contains no added sweeteners or chemical additives (other than flavors, extracts or essences). It must be calorie-free and sugar-free. Flavors, extracts or essences may be added to drinking water, but they must comprise less than one-percent-by-weight of the final product or the product will be considered a soft drink. Drinking water may be sodium-free or contain very low amounts of sodium.
Mineral Water: Bottled water containing not less than 250 parts per million total dissolved solids may be labeled as mineral water. Mineral water is distinguished from other types of bottled water by its constant level and relative proportions of mineral and trace elements at the point of emergence from the source. No minerals can be added to this product.
Purified Water: Water that has been produced by distillation, deionization, reverse osmosis or other suitable processes and that meets the definition of purified water in the United States Pharmacopoeia may be labeled as purified bottled water. Other suitable product names for bottled water treated by one of the above processes may include "distilled water" if it is produced by distillation, "deionized water" if the water is produced by deionization, or "reverse osmosis water" if the process used is reverse osmosis. Alternatively "_____________ drinking water" can be used with the blank being filled in with one of the terms defined in this paragraph (e.g. "purified drinking water" or "distilled drinking water").
Sparkling Water: Water that after treatment and possible replacement with carbon dioxide contains the same amount of carbon dioxide that it had at emergence from the source. (An important note: soda water, seltzer water and tonic water are not considered bottled waters. They are regulated separately, may contain sugar and calories, and are considered soft drinks.)
Spring Water: Bottled water derived from an underground formation from which water flows naturally to the surface of the earth. Spring water must be collected only at the spring or through a bore hole tapping the underground formation and the spring. Spring water collected with the use of an external force must be from the same underground stratum as the spring and must have all the physical properties, before treatment, and be of the same composition and quality as the water that flows naturally to the surface of the earth.
Well Water: Bottled water from a hole bored, drilled or otherwise constructed in the ground which taps the water of an aquifer.
Who regulates bottled water?
As with many other products, multiple agencies have regulatory
authority over bottled water. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and
the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) are both responsible for the
safety of drinking water. EPA regulates public drinking water (tap
water), while FDA regulates bottled drinking water.
FDA has set Current Good Manufacturing Practices (CGMPs)
specifically for bottled water. They require bottled water
producers to:
- Process, bottle, hold and transport safely
- Protect water sources from bacteria,
chemicals and other contaminants;
- Use quality control processes to ensure
the bacteriological and chemical safety of the water;
- Sample and test both source water and
the final product for contaminants.
The FDA monitors and inspects bottled water products and
processing plants under its food safety program, but critics say
that these inspections are very rare and incomplete. When FDA
inspects plants, the Agency verifies that the plant's product
water and operational water supply are obtained from an approved
source; inspects washing and sanitizing procedures; inspects
bottling operations; and determines whether the companies
analyze their source water and product water for contaminants.
NRDC conducted a four-year review of the bottled water industry and the safety standards that govern it, including a comparison of national bottled water rules with national tap water rules, and independent testing of over 1,000 bottles of water. Their conclusion is that there is no assurance that just because water comes out of a bottle it is any cleaner or safer than water from the tap. And in fact, an estimated 25 percent or more of bottled water is really just tap water in a bottle -- sometimes further treated, sometimes not. And since your local tap water is required to be tested, by law, and those results must be publicly available, there is a greater likelihood that you can verify the safety of your tap water, while you can not verify the compliance of any bottled water. If you want the safest, cleanest, best tasting water; EHSO's recommendation is install a good water filter on your tap! (We like the PUR series). For a more detailed explanation of how to choose a drinking water, see this page.
You can always make your own":
There are 3 approaches to home drinking water filtration, starting with the MOST expensive and likely effective, to the least
- Inline reverse osmosis systems - APEC Water Systems ROES-50 Essence Series Top Tier
5-Stage Certified Ultra Safe Reverse Osmosis Drinking Water Filter System
- Inline filtration systems: The Frizzlife Under Sink Water Filter System-NSF/ANSI 53&42
Certified High Capacity Direct Connect Under Counter Drinking Water Filtration System is highly rated.
- Refrigerator container filters: Epic's pitcher gets great reviews.
Bottled Waters to Watch and Those Testing Clean
Keep in mind, this was only a snapshot in time, and results can vary.
SELECTED WATERS TO WATCH
Water, State of Purchase & Comments | WATERS TESTING CLEAN
Water, State of Purchase & Comments |
Alhambra Mountain Spring Water (CA)
Heterotrophic-plate-count bacteria in some bottles over 500 colony forming units/milliliter (cfu/ml) guideline | Deer Park (DC, NY)
No contaminants of concern found in four tests |
Appollinaris (CA)
Arsenic above California warning level | Naya (CA, NY)
No contaminants of concern found in four tests |
Black Mountain Fluoridated Water (CA)
Heterotrophic-plate-count bacteria over 500 cfu/ml guideline in some bottles; fluoride levels exceed FDA and California standards for warm weather areas | Rocky Mountain Drinking Water (CA)
No contaminants of concern found in two tests |
Crystal Geyser Alpine Spring Water (CA)
Arsenic in excess of California warning level and World Health Organization and European Union standards | San Pelligrino (CA)
No contaminants of concern found in two tests |
Lady Lee Drinking Water (CA)
Trihalomethanes in excess of California and industry standards | Vons Drinking Water (CA)
No contaminants of concern found in two tests |
Lucky Seltzer Water (CA)
Trihalomethanes in excess of California standards (and over industry standards, which don't apply to seltzer) | Vons Natural Spring Water (CA)
No contaminants of concern found in two tests |
Master Choice (NY)
Heterotrophic-plate-count bacteria over 500 cfu/ml in some bottles |
|
Odwalla Geothermal Natural Spring Water (CA)
Fluoride level in excess of California and FDA standard for warm weather areas |
|
Poland Spring (DC)
Heterotrophic-plate-count bacteria over 500 cfu/ml guideline in some bottles; 1996 excess chlorine recall |
|
Private Selection Drinking & Purified Waters (CA)
Trihalomethane levels above California and industry standards |
|
Publix Drinking Water (FL)
Trihalomethanes above industry standard |
|
Safeway Drinking Water & Purified Water & Club Soda & Select Seltzer & Spring Water (all CA)
Trihalomethanes above California and industry standards |
|
Vittel Mineral Water (CA)
Arsenic in excess of California, World Health Organization, and European Union standards |
|
Volvic Natural Spring Water (CA)
Arsenic in excess of California, World Health Organization, and European Union standards |
|
| Note: This list is intended to be read with the NRDC Petition to FDA Regarding Bottled Water and the attached report Bottled Water: Pure Drink or Pure Hype. Conclusions about individual waters should not be made from this list alone. These results are provided for information only to assist in deciding what further research is needed, and should not be used as a sole basis for choosing a brand of water or reaching conclusions about the overall quality of the water. As noted in the text of the reports, the NRDC "snapshot" testing was not complete and not necessarily statistically representative of the quality of all bottles of the waters tested. For further information, review the full report, including Table 2: Selected Contaminants of Potential Concern for Bottled Water, and the summary of test results in Appendix A. |
Photo: Photodisc
Shelf Life of Bottled Water
How long is a bottle of water good if it remains sealed?
In the United States bottled water's shelf life is date stamped for two years. It should be stored in a dark, cool, dry area away from any solvents or chemicals. I have tasted a bottle of Mountain Valley that was bottled several decades ago and the seal (in this case a metal cap) was still intact. The water was excellent, and except for some mineral crystals at the bottom on the glass, was identical to a fresh bottle of Mountain Valley.
The International Bottled Water Association (IBWA) further adds:
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration, which regulates the quality and safety of bottled water, has neither set nor suggested any limitation to the shelf life of bottled water.You may notice that most bottled water containers sold at retail bear a two-year expiration date. This acts as a lot number and is for stock rotation purposes. It does not mean the product is substandard after that date. Thus, bottled water purchased in bulk is good indefinitely if stored appropriately. Appropriately means unopened in a cool, dry place away from odors and toxic substances.For those yearning for a more technical explanation, it is thus: Bottled water is considered to be of virtually no significant nutritional value. Therefore, unlike milk, fish or poultry, bottled water is not an adequate substrate for pathogens responsible for the majority of food-borne illnesses. In that regard, IBWA's general position is that as long as bottled water is packaged in accordance with FDA processing and good manufacturing practices, 21 CFR, Part 129, and meets the FDA quality standard provisions as outlined in 21 CFR, Part 165, the product's shelf life should remain intact for an indefinite period provided that product storage and other post-packaging and handling practices do not adulterate or deleteriously affect the finished product. Whew!
By the way, the size of the container is irrelevant. Bottled water is a federally regulated pure food product packaged and distributed in individually coded discrete sanitary containers. It adheres to a strict regimen of testing and analysis. IBWA members must also adhere to standards tougher than the FDA requirements and must also submit to annual surprise inspections by an independent third party inspection organization (National Sanitation Foundation/NSF International). For a list of bottled water regulations and IBWA members, visit IBWA's web site
Plastic Taste in Bottled Water
Do plastic bottles cause a taste in bottled water?
Certain lower grade plastics such as HDPE (high-density polyethylene), which is used in the milk industry, can give a plastic taste to water. Many water bottlers have switched to high-grade, (and more expensive) PET (polyethylene terephthalate), which does not pass on any plastic taste to water.
Back to top
Bottled Water V. Tap Water: Drinking Water News,
Updates and Related Articles
News
- The EPA seeks new limits on Chemicals in Drinking Water - The Wall
Street Journal, February 3, 2011 - According to the article, the EPA
plans to create a national maximum limit on perchlorate in drinking water.
Presently, there is no mandate, just guidelines. Perchlorate, which is most
common a constituent in rocket fuel, can cause hormonal problems by restricting
the thyroid's ability to absorb iodine. The EPA also plans to regulate 16 other
chemicals in the near future. Refernce EPA Administrator Lisa Jackson.
-
U.S. Lowers Limits for Fluoride in Water -
Reuters Health, January 7, 2011,
-
HHS and EPA Announce New Scientific Assessments and Actions on Fluoride - Dept. of Health and Human
Services, January 7, 2011,
-
FDA Regulates the Safety of Bottled Water Beverages Including
Flavored Water and Nutrient-Added Water Beverages(Food
and Drug Administration)
-
10 U.S. cities with the worst drinking water - If you live in
Pensacola, Fla., you may want to invest in a water purifier,
MSNBC, February 2011
Related Information
-
Bottled Water(American Dental Association)
-
Emergency Disinfection of Drinking Water(Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Water) Also available in
Spanish
